Assembling of molecules on a 2d material and an electronic device

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to a method for assembling molecules on the surface of a two-dimensional material formed on a substrate, the method comprises: forming a spacer layer comprising at least one of an electrically insulating compound or a semiconductor compound on the surface of the two-dimensional material, depositing molecules on the spacer layer, annealing the substrate with spacer layer and the molecules at an elevated temperature for an annealing time duration, wherein the temperature and annealing time are such that at least a portion of the molecules are allowed to diffuse through the spacer layer towards the surface of the two-dimensional material to assemble on the surface of the two-dimensional material. The invention also relates to an electronic device.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.16/955,188, filed Jun. 18, 2020, which is a 371 U.S. National Stage ofInternational Application No. PCT/SE2018/051257, filed Dec. 6, 2018,which claims priority to Swedish Patent Application No. 1751625-3, filedDec. 22, 2017. The disclosures of each of the above applications areincorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to a method for assembling molecules onthe surface of a two-dimensional material formed on a substrate. Theinvention further relates to an electronic device.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The possibility to assemble organic molecules on two-dimensionalmaterials (2D materials), such as for example graphene has recently beenproposed to provide enhanced electronic properties of 2D materials. Theassembly of molecules on 2D materials may also provide means forcreating novel 2D materials with properties which are not available inbare 2D crystals.

It appears that the organization and conformation of molecules on the 2Dcrystal may influence the electronic structure of the 2D material byinterplay of interactions between the 2D material and depositedmolecules. However, it is of importance that the molecules form a layeron the 2D material and not form closely packed islands.

Traditionally, molecules are deposited onto the 2D material in ultrahigh vacuum (UHV) conditions. However, the molecule-2D material complexprepared by sublimation of molecules onto the 2D material in UHVconditions—is chemically unstable and deteriorates upon exposure toambient conditions, and this complicates the use of the molecule-2Dmaterial for some implementations, such as implementations employingdoped 2D-materials, where the doping may be achieved by assembly ofdopant molecules on the surface of the 2D material.

Accordingly, there is room for improvements in processes for preparingcomposites of 2D material having a molecular layer on the 2D materialsurface. There also appears to be a need for such composites withimproved chemical stability.

SUMMARY

In view of the above-mentioned and other drawbacks of the prior art, itis an object of the present invention to provide a method which allowsfor the preparation of composites comprising a molecule layer on a 2Dmaterial that are chemically stable not only in ultra high vacuum and atcryogenic temperatures, but also at higher temperature and pressureconditions such as ambient conditions.

According to a first aspect of the present invention, it is thereforeprovided a method for assembling molecules on the surface of atwo-dimensional material formed on a substrate, the method comprises:forming a spacer layer comprising at least one of an electricallyinsulating compound or a semiconductor compound on the surface of thetwo-dimensional material, depositing molecules on the spacer layer,annealing the substrate with spacer layer and the molecules at anelevated temperature for an annealing time duration, wherein thetemperature and annealing time are such that at least a portion of themolecules are allowed to diffuse through the spacer layer towards thesurface of the two-dimensional material to assemble on the surface ofthe two-dimensional material.

The present invention is based on the realization to allow the moleculesto diffuse through a spacer layer for assembling on the surface of thetwo-dimensional material. Accordingly, the molecules are not directlydeposited onto the surface of the 2D material; instead, a spacer layeris first formed on the 2D material. Next, the molecules are deposited onthe spacer layer and diffuse through the spacer layer towards thesurface of the 2D material during an annealing process in apredetermined temperature for a predetermined time duration.

With the inventive concept, there is no need for ultra-high-vacuum whendepositing the molecules. Furthermore, the spacer layer provides forembedding the molecules which are assembled on the surface of the 2Dmaterial, which is at least partly responsible for providing thechemical stability of the molecule assembly on the surface of the 2Dmaterial.

A 2D material in accordance with the present inventive conceptpreferably only comprises a single atomic layer or only a few atomiclayers of one or more atomic species.

The electrically insulating compound or semiconductor compound formingthe spacer layer may be any such compound which allows the diffusion ofmolecules through the compound during an annealing process. The spacerlayer is preferably a solid spacer layer.

The semiconductor compound may be a wide bandgap semiconductor in somepossible implementations. A wide bandgap semiconductor may have abandgap larger than 2 eV.

That the annealing temperature is at an elevated temperature should beinterpreted broadly but is preferably above room temperature. Theannealing time and temperature may be based on several factors, such asthe characteristics of the compound of the spacer layer. Generally, theinterplay between the compound of the spacer layer and the annealingtime and temperatures should be such that the molecules are allowed todiffuse through the spacer layer during the annealing.

In some embodiments, the spacer layer is encapsulated with at least oneencapsulating layer comprising an electrically insulating compound afterthe molecules have been deposited on the spacer layer. Accordingly, themolecules deposited on the spacer layer are provided with encapsulationwhich advantageously provides further improved chemical stability of themolecular assembly on the 2D material. The encapsulating layer(s) maycomprise the same compound as the spacer layer.

According to further embodiments, at least one metal layer may bedeposited on the encapsulating layer(s). The metal layer(s) impedeescape of the molecules from the surface of the 2D material, and alsofrom the spacer layer, in particular when the spacer layer is a polymermatrix and thereby provide further improved stability.

In some possible embodiments, the electrically insulating compound inthe spacer layer may comprise a polymer, wherein the annealingtemperature is above the glass transition temperature of theelectrically insulating polymer. Annealing above the glass transitiontemperature advantageously allows for faster diffusion of the moleculesthrough the spacer layer.

According to embodiments of the invention, the molecules may bemolecular dopants, wherein the molecular dopants diffuse through thespacer layer towards the surface of the two-dimensional material toassemble on the surface of the two-dimensional material to thereby dopethe two-dimensional material. Accordingly, there is provided a methodfor doping a two-dimensional material in a stable manner at ambientconditions. In this manner, high mobility and stable 2D materials may beprovided.

The annealing time and annealing temperature may be based on a desireddegree of doping of the two-dimensional layer.

The forming of the spacer layer may be performed in various ways. In oneimplementation, forming the spacer layer comprises: coating the layer oftwo-dimensional material with a liquid comprising an electricallyinsulating polymer, and annealing the coated substrate comprising thetwo-dimensional material for a second time duration at a temperatureabove the glass transition temperature of the electrically insulatingpolymer to form the spacer layer on the two-dimensional material.Thereby, a relatively simple method for forming the spacer layer isprovided.

The liquid comprising electrically insulating polymer may for example bespin-coated onto the two-dimensional material on the substrate. However,the liquid comprising electrically insulating polymer may also beapplied by dipping the substrate into the liquid or by spraying theliquid onto the 2D material. Spin-coating provides a simple and reliablemethod for coating the two-dimensional material with the liquid.

According to other possible implementations, the spacer layer may beformed by depositing the electrically insulating polymer by at least oneof physical vapor deposition or chemical vapor deposition.

Depositing molecules on the spacer layer may comprise coating the spacerlayer with a liquid solution comprising an electrically insulatingpolymer and the molecules. This allows for relatively simple preparationfor molecule deposition on the spacer layer. Furthermore, it allows forspin-coating the spacer layer with the liquid solution comprising theelectrically insulating polymer and the molecular dopant, in a similarmanner as with the spacer layer. In addition, the chemical stability inair is further improved by embedding the molecule into a suitablepolymer matrix, to form a polymer blend dopant layer.

The concentration of the molecule in the liquid solution is chosen basedon their molecular mass and density. For example, the concentration byweight of the molecular dopant in the liquid solution may be at least0.2%, such as 0.5%, 0.8%, 1%, or 2%.

The spacer layer may advantageously encapsulate the two-dimensionalmaterial on the substrate. Thereby, the molecules assembled on thesurface of the 2D material are more reliably maintained on the surface.

The thickness of the spacer layer is at least 5 nm. For example, thespacer layer may be about 100 nm, 200 nm, or even 500 nm, 700 nm, or 1micrometer.

At least one of the electrically insulating polymers comprises PMMA orcopolymers of PMMA.

The two-dimensional material may be any two dimensional materialexfoliated from its parent material.

In possible implementations, the two-dimensional material is epitaxialgraphene. The graphene may be produced by chemical vapor deposition.

The substrate is preferably Silicon-carbide, in particular when thetwo-dimensional material is epitaxial graphene.

Various types of molecular dopants may be used and is within the scopeof the claims, however, in one possible implementation the moleculardopant is at least one of Tetrafluoro-tetracyanoquinodimethane (F4TCNQ)and tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ).

According to a second aspect of the present invention, there is providedan electronic device comprising: a substrate; a two-dimensional materialformed on the substrate; a spacer layer comprising at least one of anelectrically insulating compound or a semiconductor compound on thesurface of the two-dimensional material a layer of electricallyinsulating compound and molecules formed on the space layer; anencapsulation layer comprising at least one of an electricallyinsulating compound or a semiconductor compound formed on the layercomprising the molecules; a metal layer formed on the encapsulationlayer, wherein a layer of molecules of the same species as the moleculesin the layer on the spacer layer is assembled on the layer of thetwo-dimensional material.

The molecules may be molecular dopants, whereby the molecular dopants onthe spacer layer thereby causes doping of the two-dimensional material.The molecular dopants advantageously cause an increase of the mobilityof the two-dimensional material. When the molecular dopants havediffused through the spacer layer, they are advantageously arranged onthe surface of the two-dimensional material, which causes so-calledmodulation doping.

Furthermore, if the encapsulation layer is removed from an electronicdevice according to embodiments of the second aspect of the inventiveconcept, then it may be observed that the electronic mobility of thetwo-dimensional material is reduced. This might be caused by desorptionof the molecular dopants away from the surface of the two-dimensionallayer or by chemical degradation due to the removal of theencapsulation.

According to further embodiments of the inventive concept, theelectronic device may comprise at least four connection pads connectedto the two-dimensional material, wherein two of the connection pads arearranged as input ports for providing an electric current to thetwo-dimensional material, and wherein the other two connection pads arearranged as output ports for sensing a voltage across thetwo-dimensional material in response to an input signal acting on thetwo-dimensional material. Accordingly, the electronic device may befunctional as a Hall bar, the input signal may be a magnetic fieldapplied perpendicular to the surface of the two-dimensional material.

In addition, the electronic device may be a quantum resistance standard.

The metal layer may advantageously be configured as a gate for providingelectrostatic gating of the doped two-dimensional material. In this way,the mobility and carrier density of the two-dimensional material may betuned.

Further embodiments of, and effects obtained through this second aspectof the present invention are largely analogous to those described abovefor the first aspect of the invention.

According to a third aspect of the invention, there is provided use ofan electronic device according to any one of the embodiments of thesecond aspect, as a quantum resistance standard.

Further features of, and advantages with, the present invention willbecome apparent when studying the appended claims and the followingdescription. The skilled addressee realizes that different features ofthe present invention may be combined to create embodiments other thanthose described in the following, without departing from the scope ofthe present invention.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

These and other aspects of the present invention will now be describedin more detail, with reference to the appended drawings showing anexample embodiment of the invention, wherein:

FIG. 1 a-d schematically illustrate method steps for assemblingmolecules on the surface of a two-dimensional material;

FIG. 1 e is a flow-chart of method steps according to embodiments of theinvention;

FIG. 2 a-f schematically illustrate method steps for assemblingmolecules on the surface of a two-dimensional material;

FIG. 3 is a flow-chart of method steps according to embodiments of theinvention;

FIG. 4 is a flow-chart of method steps according to embodiments of theinvention;

FIG. 5 a is a cross-section of a first test device;

FIG. 5 b is a cross-section of a second test device;

FIG. 5 c is a cross-section of a third test device according toembodiments of the invention;

FIG. 5 d shows carrier concentration as a function of temperature of thetest devices in FIGS. 5 a -c;

FIG. 5 e shows mobility as a function of temperature of the test devicesin FIGS. 5 a -c;

FIG. 6 a-c shows chemical profiling of a polymer heterostructure andunderlying (doped) graphene using ToF-SIMS;

FIG. 7 schematically illustrates a cross-section of an electronic deviceaccording to embodiments of the invention;

FIG. 8 schematically illustrates an electronic device according toembodiments of the invention; and

FIG. 9 shows longitudinal resistance and transverse resistance versusapplied magnetic field for an electronic device as the one shown in FIG.8 .

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXAMPLE EMBODIMENTS

In the present detailed description, various embodiments of theinventive concept is mainly described with reference to atwo-dimensional material in the form of graphene and molecular dopantsin the form of F4TCNQ. However, it should be noted that this by no meanslimits the scope of the present invention, which equally well applicableto any two dimensional material exfoliated from its parent material, andto any molecule which can diffuse through a suitable spacer layer.

FIG. 1 a-d schematically illustrates a method for assembling moleculeson the surface of a two-dimensional material. FIG. 1 a-d will bedescribed in conjunction with the flow-chart of method steps illustratedin FIG. 1 e.

FIG. 1 a illustrates a substrate 102 having thereon a layer of atwo-dimensional material 104. The two-dimensional material may be anytwo dimensional material exfoliated from its parent material. In onepreferred implementation, the two-dimensional material 104 is epitaxialgraphene produced by chemical vapor deposition on a silicon-carbidesubstrate 102. The epitaxial graphene may be wafer scale graphene grownon the silicon-carbide substrate 102.

FIG. 1 b illustrates a spacer layer 106 that has been formed (step S102,FIG. 1 e ) on the two-dimensional material 104. The spacer layercomprises an electrically insulating compound, or a semiconductorcompound. The spacer layer 106 may be produced in various ways, forexample, by coating the two-dimensional material 104 with a liquidcomprising an electrically insulating polymer, and subsequentlyannealing the substrate with the liquid solution above the glasstransition temperature of the electrically insulating polymer.Alternatively, the spacer layer 106 may be produced by physical vapordeposition (PVD) or chemical vapor deposition (CVD). The fabricationprocess (e.g. coating with a liquid, PVD, CVD) depends at least partlyon the type of electrically insulating compound, or type ofsemiconductor compound. PVD and CVD are standard micro-fabricationprocesses known to the skilled person. The thickness of the spacer layer106 depends on the type of spacer layer material but is preferably atleast 5 nm thick, but it may be up to even 500 nm thick.

Now turning to FIG. 1 c illustrating molecules 108 being deposited (stepS104, FIG. 1 e ) on the surface of the spacer layer 106. Only one of themolecules 108 is numbered to avoid cluttering the drawings. There arevarious ways of depositing the molecules on the spacer layer, one whichwill be described with reference to subsequent drawings. Example methodsinclude evaporation processes, deposition from solution, and spraycoating.

The substrate with the spacer layer and the molecules deposited on thespacer layer are annealed (step S106, FIG. 1 e ) at an elevatedtemperature for a predetermined time duration. The elevated temperatureis above room temperature and is generally determined based on thematerial of the spacer layer 106 and the properties of the molecule 108.The annealing temperature and the annealing time are selected such thatthe molecules 108 are allowed to diffuse through the spacer layer 106towards the two-dimensional material 104. As conceptually illustrated inFIG. 1 d , the molecules 108 assemble on the surface of thetwo-dimensional material 104 after havening diffused through the spacerlayer 106 during annealing.

Now turning to FIGS. 2 a-d which schematically illustrate a method forassembling molecules on the surface of a two-dimensional material. FIG.2 a-d will be described in conjunction with the flow-chart of methodsteps illustrated in FIG. 3 .

Similar to FIG. 1 a , FIG. 2 a illustrates a substrate 102 havingthereon a layer of a two-dimensional material 104. The two-dimensionalmaterial 104 may be any two dimensional material exfoliated from itsparent material. In one possible implementation, the two-dimensionalmaterial 104 is epitaxial graphene produced by chemical vapor depositionon a silicon-carbide substrate 102. The epitaxial graphene may be waferscale graphene grown on the on the silicon-carbide substrate 102.

A spacer layer 106 as illustrated in FIG. 2 b may be formed by firstcoating the layer of two-dimensional material 104 with a liquidcomprising an electrically insulating polymer as is also indicated bystep S202 in FIG. 3 . The substrate 102 with the two dimensionalmaterial 104 coated with the liquid solution is annealed (step S204,FIG. 3 ) for a time duration at an elevated temperature above the glasstransition temperature of the electrically insulating polymer. In thisway, the spacer layer 106 is formed in this presently described exampleembodiment. Coating the layer of two-dimensional material 104 with theliquid comprising the electrically insulating polymer may be performedby spin-coating methods known per se to the skilled person.

In one possible implementation the electrically insulating polymer ispoly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA). In case of using PMMA in the spacerlayer 106, the PMMA is typically dissolved in a suitable solvent and theannealing temperature should be sufficiently high so that the glasstransition temperature (which depends on the molecular weight of PMMA)is exceeded. For example, the annealing time duration may be about 5 minand the annealing temperature about 160° C., such that a solid spacerlayer is formed.

FIG. 2 c illustrates that the spacer layer 106 has been coated with aliquid solution (step S206) comprising an electrically insulatingpolymer 110 and molecules 108. The coating may be performed by spincoating methods.

The substrate 102 with spacer layer 106 and the liquid solutioncomprising the molecules 102 and the electrically insulating polymer 110is annealed (step S208, FIG. 3 ) for a time duration at an elevatedtemperature above the glass transition temperature of the electricallyinsulating polymer 110. Also this electrically insulating polymer may bePMMA or MMA, or copolymers of PMMA.

The annealing temperature and the annealing time are selected such thatthe molecules 108 are allowed to diffuse through the spacer layer 106towards the surface two-dimensional material 104. As conceptuallyillustrated in FIG. 2 d , the molecules 108 assemble on the surface ofthe two-dimensional material 104 after having diffused through thespacer layer 106 during annealing. However, there are often somemolecules left in the annealed molecule layer 112 comprising theelectrically insulating polymer 110 and molecules 108.

Now with reference to FIGS. 2 e-f and to the flow-chart in FIG. 4 . Infurther embodiments, an encapsulating layer 114 is formed on theannealed molecule layer 112 (step S210, FIG. 4 ) as schematically shownin FIG. 2 e . The encapsulating layer 114 may comprise of anelectrically insulating compound such as a polymer (e.g. PMMA or MMA, orcopolymers of PMMA). The production of the encapsulating layer 114 maybe performed in the same way as the above described layers comprisingelectrically insulating compounds (i.e. coating and annealing). Theencapsulation layer improves the chemical stability of the assembledmolecules 108 on the two-dimensional material 106. In particular, theencapsulation layer at least partly prevents drift in carrierconcentration caused by exposure to ambient dopants.

Further, and as schematically illustrate in FIG. 2 f , a metal layer 116may be deposited on the encapsulating layer 114 (step S212, FIG. 4 ).The metal layer 116 may comprise e.g. gold or aluminum, and may bedeposited using known processes such as sputtering, physical vapordeposition, chemical vapor deposition, etc. The metal layer 116 shieldsthe molecules 108 assembled on the two-dimensional material 104 suchthat the chemical stability is further improved. In addition, the metallayer 116 may serve as a gate in embodiments where the molecules aremolecular dopants. The metal gate may then be used for providingelectrostatic gating of the doped two-dimensional material.

In some embodiments, the two-dimensional material is epitaxial graphene104 grown on a silicon-carbide substrate 102. Further, the electricallyinsulating compound of the spacer layer 106 may be PMMA, as well as theelectrically insulating compound in the annealed molecule layer 112 andthe encapsulating layer 114. The molecules 108 may beTetrafluoro-tetracyanoquinodimethane (F4TCNQ), although other moleculesare also applicable, such as e.g. tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ).

Spin-coating and annealing methods are known per se to the skilledperson, as well as chemical vapor deposition and physical vapordeposition.

FIG. 5 a-c each illustrates a cross-section of a respective test deviceused for comparing carrier density and electron mobility of anelectronic device manufactured according to the inventive concept (FIG.6 c ) with other test devices.

FIG. 5 a shows a cross section of first test device 502 comprising asilicon-carbide substrate 102 having thereon a layer of graphene 104 anda layer of PMMA 106, which may correspond to a spacer layer 106.

FIG. 5 b illustrates a cross section of second test device 504comprising a silicon-carbide substrate 102 having thereon an annealedlayer 112 of PMMA 110 and molecular dopants 108 (only one is numbered),in this case the molecular dopant is F4TCNQ.

FIG. 5 c shows a cross section of a third test device 506 comprising agraphene layer 104 on a silicon-carbide substrate 102, a PMMA spacerlayer 106, an annealed molecule layer 112 comprising PMMA 110, and anencapsulating layer 114 comprising PMMA.

All devices shown in FIGS. 5 a-c comprises gold contacts 120electrically connected to the graphene layer 104 for enabling Hallmeasurements to extract carrier density and mobility of the graphenelayer 104. Accordingly, the devices are patterned as a Hall bar althoughonly one portion of the devices are shown in the cross-sections in FIGS.5 a -c.

FIG. 5 d shows carrier concentration as a function of temperatureextracted from Hall measurements for pristine epitaxial graphene(“As-grown”) and the test devices (502, 504, 506) shown in FIGS. 5 a-c .Both PMMA (test device 502) and the F4TCNQ (test device 504) actindependently as a p-dopant which can be seen from the lower carrierconcentration in the curves for the test devices 502 and 504 compared toas-grown graphene, with the former being a weaker p-dopant. Whendeposited directly onto graphene, it is only when the PMMA spacer layer106 is included between graphene and the F4TCNQ layer 112 (test device506) that the carrier density of the epitaxial graphene decreases bythree orders of magnitude, from 10¹³ to 10¹⁰ cm⁻² at T=4K (almost 2orders of magnitude at room temperature).

FIG. 5 e shows Hall carrier mobility as a function of temperature formeasurements for pristine epitaxial graphene and the test devices (502,504, 506) shown in FIGS. 5 a-c . The carrier mobility for the testdevices in FIG. 5 a (502) and FIG. 5 b (504) do not exceed 10,000cm²/Vs. However, for the third test device 506 schematically shown inFIG. 5 c which has molecular dopant layer 112 on the spacer layer 106the carrier mobility exceeds 50,000 cm²/Vs.

Accordingly, as may be understood from the above, the molecule depositedon the spacer layer may be a molecular dopant such as F4TCNQ or TCNQ.Thereby, an air-stable functionalization of graphene with a moleculardopant is achieved which enables high mobility epitaxial graphene.

The thickness of the spacer layer 106 appears to not affect theimprovement in carrier density and carrier mobility, at least not in therange of 100 nm to 500 nm which suggests that the diffusion of F4TCNQmolecules through the polymer is relatively quick. The spacer layer ispreferably at least 5 nm thick.

The chemical composition of a manufactured electronic device has beeninvestigated using Time-of-Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry(ToF-SIMS) depth profiling. FIG. 6 a schematically illustrates across-section of the device 600 which was investigated and which wasproduced using a method according to the inventive concept. Thecross-section in FIG. 6 a illustrates a graphene layer 104 on asilicon-carbide substrate 102, a PMMA spacer layer 106 (about 100 nmthick) directly in contact with the substrate 102 and the graphene layer104, an annealed molecule layer 112 comprising a PMMA-F4TCNQ blend(about 200 nm thick, molecules not shown), an encapsulating PMMA layer(about 100 nm thick) 114, and a gold pad 120 on the substrate 102embedded by the spacer layer 106.

The results from the ToF-SIMS investigation is presented in FIG. 6 b-cand show that F4TCNQ species diffuse through the PMMA spacer layer 106to reach the graphene 104 surface, presumably form a charge-transfercomplex with the graphene 104, and accumulate at the graphene/spacerinterface as can be understood from FIG. 6 b . FIG. 6 b shows thechemical profile in the vertical axis with respect to the substrate,with ion intensity plotted as a function of sputter time, of thetrilayer polymer stack along the direction normal to the surface of thegraphene 104 indicated by the arrow 601 a in FIG. 6 a . The ionintensity is shown for flour (F) and the cyanogroup (CN) which bothrepresent the dopant F4TCNQ. The ion intensity for silicon (Si) is alsoincluded in FIG. 6 b.

In FIG. 6 b , it can be seen that the intensity of the F4TCNQ countsindicated by the line 602 (CN) and 603 (F) has a small increase in theannealed molecule layer 112 indicating that there are still some F4TCNQmolecules left in the annealed molecule layer 112. At the interfacebetween the graphene layer 104 and the PMMA spacer layer 106, there is alarger increase indicated by the peak 604 (curve for CN, see also thepeak in F-intensity in curve 603), indicative of the accumulation ofF4TCNQ molecules at the surface of the graphene layer 104.

FIG. 6 c shows a comparison of the chemical profile in the verticalaxis, with ion intensity plotted as a function of sputter time, of thetrilayer polymer stack along the direction normal to the surface of thesubstrate at three different sites on the substrate: graphene (at arrow601 a in FIG. 6 a ), bare SiC (at arrow 601 b in FIG. 6 a ), and thin Aufilm on graphene (at arrow 601 c in FIG. 6 a ). The legend in FIG. 6 crepresents the site (e.g. at arrows 601 a-c) at which the chemicalprofile was obtained on the device 600.

FIG. 6 c illustrates the chemical signatures arising from the moleculardopant F4TCNQ (i.e. a CN signal as described with reference to FIG. 6 b) at the site (601 a) of the graphene, on SiC (601 b), and on Au (601b). The signatures acquired at SiC or Au serves as an indicator of thepolymer spacer layer substrate interface (seen at about 250 sputterseconds, also seen in FIG. 6 b ). Note that the thickness of each layeras estimated from SIMS is approximate since the rate of etching isdifferent depending on material. Inhomogeneous sputtering, e.g. due tosurface roughness, will also smear and broaden the interfaces, such asthe F4TCNQ accumulation layer near graphene.

ToF-SIMS reveals not only that F4TCNQ is found at the annealed moleculelayer 112 and the PMMA spacer layer 106, suggesting a rapid diffusion ofF4TCNQ from the intermediate dopant layer 112 comprising F4TCNQ andPMMA, but also that dopants (F4TCNQ) reach the substrate 102 surface andaccumulate at the conductive surfaces of graphene 104 and gold 120 (FIG.6 b and FIG. 6 c ).

Accordingly, F4TCNQ is mobile in polymer thin films and its diffusiondepends on a number of parameters of the host polymer matrix (e.g. PMMA,MMA, or copolymers of PMMA), notably on the polarity and the glasstransition temperature (T_(g)). Given the polarity of PMMA and thethermal annealing step of the described process above the glasstransition temperature of the polymer (T_(g)˜105° C.), a conservativeestimate for the lower bound of the flux of F4TCNQ at the substratesurface is j=D·Δc/Δx=5×10⁻⁹ mol·cm⁻² s⁻¹, which means that initially anamount of F4TCNQ equivalent to a 10 nm thick solid layer reaches thespacer/substrate interface per second. Here we have used D 10⁻¹⁰ cm² s⁻¹measured for diffusion of neutral F4TCNQ in nonpolar P3HT at about 50°C. (see e.g. Quantitative Measurements of the Temperature-DependentMicroscopic and Macroscopic Dynamics of a Molecular Dopant in aConjugated Polymer,” Macromolecules, vol. 50, no. 14, pp. 5476-5489,July 2017), Δc=5·10⁻⁴ mol cm⁻³ the initial F4TCNQ concentration gradientbetween the molecule layer 112 and spacer layer 106 (density of F4TCNQρ˜1.4 g cm⁻³; molar mass M˜276 g mol⁻¹), and Δx=100 nm is the thicknessof the spacer layer 106.

The observed p-doping effect on graphene (see FIGS. 5 a-e and abovediscussion) and the accumulation of F4TCNQ at the graphene 104 and goldsurfaces 120, signaled by spike in CN-species followed by the appearanceof either Si-signal or Au-signal (FIG. 6 b and FIG. 6 c ), may beexplained by the formation of a charge transfer complex that yields aF4TCNQ anion, which must remain at the graphene interface to preserveoverall charge neutrality. In addition, slower diffusion of the F4TCNQanion in polymer matrix has been observed in poly(3-hexylthiophene)(P3HT):F4TCNQ blends, in which the diffusion coefficient of neutralF4TCNQ is 10⁻¹¹ cm² s⁻¹ decreases by two orders of magnitude for theF4TCNQ-anion (see e.g. Quantitative Measurements of theTemperature-Dependent Microscopic and Macroscopic Dynamics of aMolecular Dopant in a Conjugated Polymer,” Macromolecules, vol. 50, no.14, pp. 5476-5489, July 2017). When using PMMA as a host matrix for theF4TCNQ, the F4TCNQ remains neutral both in the doping layer and as itdiffuses through PMMA spacer layers. It is only when it comes to contactwith an electron donor, such as graphene, that charge transfer may takeplace.

With further reference to FIG. 6 c , there appears to be virtually noaccumulation of F4TCNQ at the polymer spacer/SiC interface as indicatedby the relatively low peak 606 in CN-signal (at SiC, 601 c) in thevertical axis towards the SiC substrate 102, the intensity of theCN-signal is roughly 50% greater at the graphene/PMMA spacer interfaceindicated by peak 608 (6-fold higher at gold/PMMA, see peak 610)compared to the signal measured at the dopant layer (1.4×10¹⁴ ionscm⁻²). From the SIMS measurements an estimate of the fraction ofmolecules which reach graphene 104 can be calculated through the areaunder the ion intensity curves 612 (SiC, at arrow 601 c), 614 (graphene,at arrow 601 a in FIG. 6 a ), 616 (gold, at arrow 601 b) in FIG. 6 c .The total amount of available molecular dopants (F4TCNQ molecules) iscalculated using the known densities of PMMA, anisole solvent in whichthe PMMA is initially dissolved, F4TCNQ molecule and the thickness ofthe F4TCNQ dopant layer after spin coating (presumed to be a slab ofPMMA and F4TCNQ molecules only). Finally, this leads to the estimatednumber of F4TCNQ on the graphene surface to be roughly ˜7×10¹⁴molecules/cm².

FIG. 7 schematically illustrates a cross-section of an electronic device700 according to embodiments of the invention. The electronic devicecomprises a substrate 102 and a two-dimensional material 104 formed onthe substrate. The substrate 102 may be a silicon-carbide substrate andthe two-dimensional material may be epitaxial graphene 104 grown on thesubstrate 102. There is further a spacer layer 106 comprising at leastone of an electrically insulating compound or a semiconductor compoundon the surface of the two-dimensional material 104. The spacer layer 106may for example comprise an electrically insulating compound in form ofPMMA or MMA, or a combination thereof. On the spacer layer 106 there isa layer 112 of electrically insulating compound and molecules 108. Alsothe electrically insulating compound in layer 112 may comprise PMMA orMMA, or a combination thereof.

An encapsulation layer 114 comprising at least one of an electricallyinsulating compound (e.g. PMMA or MMA, or a combination thereof) or asemiconductor compound has been formed on the layer 112 comprising themolecules 108. There is further a metal layer 116 formed on theencapsulation layer 114. A layer of molecules 108 of the same species asthe molecules in the layer 112 on the spacer layer 106 is assembled onthe layer of the two-dimensional material 104.

In some embodiments, the molecules are molecular dopants in the form ofe.g. Tetrafluoro-tetracyanoquinodimethane (F4TCNQ) and/ortetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ). Molecular dopants allow doping of thetwo-dimensional material 104. The metal layer 116 may serve to furtherimprove the chemical stability of the device in ambient conditions bypreventing the desorption of molecular dopants from the polymer matrixinto the surrounding environment.

Further, the metal layer 116 may serve as a gate for tuning the carrierconcentration in the two-dimensional material 104.

FIG. 8 is a schematic top view of an example conceptual electronicdevice 700. The cross-section shown in FIG. 7 is indicated in FIG. 8 bylines A-A. The electronic device is here illustrated as a Hall bar 701which may be used as an embodiment or realization of a quantumresistance standard by using the quantum Hall effect in the device.

The electronic device 700 may be fabricated using conventionallithography using e.g. electron beam lithography and/orphotolithography, which are per se known to the skilled person.

The electronic device 700 comprises at least four connection padsconnected to the two-dimensional material 104 (see FIG. 7 ). Twoconnection pads 702, 704 are arranged for enabling a current (I) to bepassed through the two dimensional material in the x-direction, alongitudinal direction of the Hall bar 700. The two connection pads 706,708 are arranged as output ports for measuring transverse voltage (Vxy)when the current (I) is passed through the two-dimensional material inthe device 700 in the longitudinal direction (x). The two connectionpads 706, 708 are spatially separated in the transverse direction (y).Furthermore, a longitudinal voltage (Vxx) may be measured betweenconnection pad 706 and an additional connection pad 710 spatiallyseparated from the connection pad 706 in the longitudinal direction. Thesize of a hall bar 700 may for example be: w=5 mm×L=3 mm, w=30 μm×L=100μm, W=2 μm×L=10 μm.

The doping homogeneity of a two-dimensional material may serve toestablish that the molecular dopants are homogenously spread on thesurface of the two-dimensional material. The doping homogeneity of theHall bar 701 was assessed using magneto-transport measurements at lowtemperatures (e.g. 2 Kelvin) and showed that the chemical doping ofgraphene 104 in the device 700 is significantly conformal over theentire hall bar 701 only when the spacer layer 106 is included betweengraphene 104 and the dopant layer 112. The doping homogeneity assessmentwill now be described with reference to FIG. 9 .

FIG. 9 is a graph showing the longitudinal resistance (Rxx) measuredbetween connection pads 706 and 710 of the Hall bar 701 in FIG. 8 , andalso the transverse resistance (Rxy1, Rxy2) measured between connectionpads 706 and 708. For the chemically doped devices such as the hall bar701, magneto-transport measurements at T=2K in the Hall bar (W=30 μm×L=100 μm) device 701 comprising the spacer layer 106 and moleculardoping layer 112 show a linear transversal resistance (Rxy1, Rxy2) formagnetic fields |B|<80 mT, after which quantum Hall plateaus 902, 904start to develop and acquire their exactly quantized value Rxy=h/2e² at|B|>300 mT (h is the Planck's constant). The magnetic field is appliedperpendicular to the plane of the Hall bar 700.

With further reference to FIG. 9 which additionally shows thelongitudinal resistance Rxx as a function of applied magnetic field (B).An additional test of charge carrier homogeneity within the measuredregions of the Hall bar 700 is the observation of fully developedquantum Hall effect (indicated by plateaus 902, 904), with thesimultaneous observation of Rxx=0 and quantized plateau in Rxy=h/2e2.Under quantizing conditions, observation of finite Rxx is in factdetermined by the magnitude of disorder in the sample, which canmanifest as oscillations in Rxx once the Rxy plateaus are reached (seee.g. “Transport in two-dimensional disordered semimetals,” Phys. Rev.Lett., vol. 113, no. 18, pp. 1-5, 2014, or “Puddle-Induced ResistanceOscillations in the Breakdown of the Graphene Quantum Hall Effect,”Phys. Rev. Lett., vol. 117, no. 23, pp. 1-5, 2016).

Accordingly, the aforementioned magneto-transport characteristicsindicate that chemically doped samples with PMMA spacer and F4TCNQdopant layer behave as systems with a single electronic band andspatially homogenous carrier density across the two-dimensional material104.

The person skilled in the art realizes that the present invention by nomeans is limited to the preferred embodiments described above. On thecontrary, many modifications and variations are possible within thescope of the appended claims.

In the claims, the word “comprising” does not exclude other elements orsteps, and the indefinite article “a” or “an” does not exclude aplurality. A single processor or other unit may fulfill the functions ofseveral items recited in the claims. The mere fact that certain measuresare recited in mutually different dependent claims does not indicatethat a combination of these measures cannot be used to advantage. Anyreference signs in the claims should not be construed as limiting thescope.

What is claimed is:
 1. An electronic device comprising: a substrate; atwo-dimensional material formed on the substrate; a spacer layercomprising at least one of an electrically insulating compound or asemiconductor compound on the surface of the two-dimensional material; alayer of electrically insulating compound and molecules formed on thespace layer; an encapsulation layer comprising at least one of anelectrically insulating compound or a semiconductor compound formed onthe layer comprising the molecules; a metal layer formed on theencapsulation layer, wherein a layer of molecules of the same species asthe molecules in the layer on the spacer layer is assembled on the layerof the two-dimensional material.
 2. The electronic device according toclaim 1, wherein the molecules are molecular dopants, whereby themolecular dopants on the spacer layer thereby causes doping of thetwo-dimensional material.
 3. The electronic device according to claim 1,wherein the two-dimensional material is epitaxial graphene.
 4. Theelectronic device according to claim 1, wherein the substrate issilicon-carbide.
 5. The electronic device according to claim 1,comprising four connection pads connected to the two-dimensionalmaterial, wherein two of the connection pads are arranged as input portsfor providing an electric current to the two-dimensional material, andwherein the other two connection pads are arranged as output ports forsensing a voltage across the two-dimensional material in response to aninput signal acting on the two-dimensional material.
 6. The electronicdevice according to claim 5, wherein the metal layer is configured as agate for providing electrostatic gating of the doped two-dimensionalmaterial.
 7. The electronic device according to claim 1, wherein theelectronic device is a quantum resistance standard device.
 8. Theelectronic device according to claim 1, wherein the thickness of thespacer layer is at least 5 nm.
 9. The electronic device according toclaim 1, wherein the molecular dopant is at least one of F4TCNQ and/orTCNQ.
 10. The electronic device according to claim 1, wherein themolecules are molecular dopants that have diffused through the spacerlayer towards the surface of the two-dimensional material to assemble onthe surface of the two-dimensional material to thereby dope thetwo-dimensional material.
 11. The electronic device according to claim1, wherein at least one of the electrically insulating polymerscomprises PMMA, or MMA, or a combination thereof.
 12. The electronicdevice according to claim 1, wherein the spacer layer encapsulates thetwo-dimensional material on the substrate.
 13. The electronic deviceaccording to claim 5, wherein the electronic device is a Hall bar.